Article Figures & Data
Figures
- FIG 1.
A, Inclusion/exclusion criteria and resultant study data. Flow chart represents screening workflow and exclusion criteria to visualize the eligibility of studies. The search strategy included keywords “artificial intelligence,” “machine learning,” “deep learning,” “radiomics,” “MR imaging,” “glioma,” “glioblastoma,” and related terms. An independent librarian reviewed the data. We predefined 8 uniform exclusion criteria: 1) abstract-only, 2) no application of ML reported, 3) not an original article, 4) not published in English, 5) no investigation of glioma/glioblastoma, 6) unrelated to MR imaging, MR spectroscopy, or PET imaging, 7) no human research subjects, and 8) duplicates. B, Distribution of all patients per study included in training or validation of a predictive model. We excluded patients whose data were strictly used for models other than the prediction of molecular subtypes. The line indicates the mean number of patients. AI indicates artificial intelligence.
- FIG 2.
Algorithm performance measurement in internal and external validation data sets. Percentages are reported as fractions to visualize measurements in 1 graph.
- FIG 3.
AUC and accuracy (ACC) results from internal and external validation studies. Results from 76 internal and 18 external validation studies are demonstrated on the basis of the molecular subtype that is being predicted. The central line in each result indicates the median value of the labeled subtype. Percentages are reported as fractions to provide visualization.
- FIG 4.
Comparison of performance of different ML algorithms in internal and external validation data sets. A, In internal validation studies, 35% (n = 27/77) used tree-based; 27% (n = 21/77), SVM; 32% (n = 25/77), neural network; and 5% (n = 4/77), other classifiers. The section named “Others” includes machine and deep learning algorithms, which cannot be classified into these 3 groups, and mixed classifiers with characteristics of multiple techniques. Lines indicate the mean value. B, Comparison of ML and DL algorithms. This figure refers to SVM and tree-based algorithms as overall ML algorithms. At the same time, all neural network–based classifiers are DL classifiers. In internal validation studies, 68% (n = 52/77) used ML algorithms, and 32% (n = 25/77) used DL classifiers. The DL algorithms demonstrated higher AUCs and statistically significant internal validation data sets. In the 95 patient cohorts analyzed, 68 studies used classic ML classifiers for their predictive models, while 26 used DL networks. The comparison of algorithms in external validation data sets was limited due to the small number of studies that validated DL algorithms. ACC indicates accuracy.
- FIG 5.
Performance measurements for the prediction of IDH and MGMT in internal and external data sets. A. AUC results for IDH mutation status and MGMT promoter methylation prediction. These data include all studies with IDH and/or MGMT prediction results, increasing the number of studies from 59 to 63. B, Accuracy results for IDH mutation and MGMT promoter methylation status.
- FIG 6.
Average PROBAST scores of all 85 included articles. Domains were scored as high ROB if ≥1 item for each domain were scored as “No” or “Probably No.” PROBAST questions are assessed so that answering with no indicates ROB for this respective item. If 1 domain was considered a high ROB, the overall ROB of the study was considered high. As a result, each study was overall rated as having a high ROB. ROB indicates risk of bias; D, development studies; V, validation studies; D1, domain 1 participants; D2, domain 2 predictors; D3, domain 3 outcome; D4, domain 4 analysis.
Tables
Accuracy AUC Sensitivity Specificity Internal validation 83% (n = 66/77) 0.84 (n = 60/77) 81% (n = 50/77) 82% (n = 49/77) External validation 83% (n = 15/18) 0.85 (n = 14/18) 78% (n = 15/18) 85% (n = 15/18) P value (Mann-Whitney U test) .83 .79 .25 .45 - Table 2:
Types of algorithms used to predict the molecular subtypes of gliomas and the number of studies that used them
IDH MGMT 1p/19q H3 K27M ATRX TERT Others Internal validation Tree-based 11 4 4 4 0 0 4 SVM 9 1 2 2 1 2 4 Neural networks 14 6 3 0 0 0 2 Others 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 External validation Tree-based 4 1 0 0 1 1 1 SVM 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 Neural networks 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Others 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Accuracy AUC Internal validation Tree-based 82% (n = 23/27) 0.82 (n = 23/27) SVM 83% (n = 12/21) 0.83 (n = 17/21) Neural network 85% (n = 22/25) 0.88 (n = 18/25) Others 84% (n = 3/4) 0.85 (n = 2/4) External validation Tree-based 85% (n = 6/8) 0.84 (n = 7/8) SVM 82% (n = 7/7) 0.84 (n = 4/7) Neural network 86% (n = 1/1) 0.86 (n = 1/1) Others 89% (n = 1/2) 0.88 (n = 2/2
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