Pictorial Review of Glutamate Excitotoxicity: Fundamental Concepts for Neuroimaging

References

1. ↵
   Waggie KS, Kahle PJ, Tolwani RJ. Neurons and mechanisms of neuronal death in neurodegenerative diseases: a brief review. Lab Anim Sci 1999;49:358-362

   PubMed
2. ↵
   Olney J. Neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids. In: McGeer E, Olney J, McGeer P, eds. Kainic Acid as a Tool in Neurobiology. New York: Raven Press; 1978:95–121
3. ↵
   Olney JW. Role of excitotoxins in developmental neuropathology. APMIS Suppl 1993;40:103-112

   PubMed
4. Choi D. Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture is calcium dependent. Neurosci Lett 1985;58:293-297

   CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
5. Abele AE, Scholz KP, Scholz WK, Miller RJ. Excitotoxicity induced by enhanced excitatory neurotransmission in cultured hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Neuron 1990;4:413-419

   CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
6. Pujol R, Rebillard G, Puel JL, Lenoir M, Eybalin M, Recasens M. Glutamate neurotoxicity in the cochlea: a possible consequence of ischaemic or anoxic conditions occurring in ageing. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1990;476:32-36

   PubMed
7. Dubinsky JM, Rothman SM. Intracellular calcium concentrations during “chemical hypoxia” and excitotoxic neuronal injury. J Neurosci 1991;11:2545-2551

   Abstract
8. Coyle JT, Puttfarcken P. Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders. Science 1993;262:689-695

   Abstract/FREE Full Text
9. Dubinsky JM. Examination of the role of calcium in neuronal death. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;679:34-42

   PubMedWeb of Science
10. Lombardi G, Szekely AM, Bristol LA, Guidotti A, Manev H. Induction of ornithine decarboxylase by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation is unrelated to potentiation of glutamate excitotoxicity by polyamines in cerebellar granule neurons. J Neurochem 1993;60:1317-1324

    PubMed
11. Lipton SA, Rosenberg PA. Excitatory amino acids as a final common pathway for neurologic disorders [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1994;330:613-622

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
12. Lipton SA. Ca2⁺, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and AIDS-related neuronal injury. Int Rev Neurobiol 1994;36:1-27

    PubMedWeb of Science
13. Lukas W, Jones KA. Cortical neurons containing calretinin are selectively resistant to calcium overload and excitotoxicity in vitro. Neuroscience 1994;61:307-316

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
14. Orrenius S, Nicotera P. The calcium ion and cell death. J Neural Trans Suppl 1994;43:1-11
15. Redmond JM, Gillinov AM, Zehr KJ, et al. Glutamate excitotoxicity: a mechanism of neurologic injury associated with hypothermic circulatory arrest. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:776-787

    PubMedWeb of Science
16. Taylor-Robinson SD, Weeks RA, Sargentoni J, et al. Evidence for glutamate excitotoxicity in Huntington's disease with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (letter). (Published erratum appears in Lancet 1994;343:1580 [see comments].) Lancet 1994;343:1170

    PubMed
17. Bading H, Segal MM, Sucher NJ, Dudek H, Lipton SA, Greenberg ME. N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors are critical for mediating the effects of glutamate on intracellular calcium concentration and immediate early gene expression in cultured hippocampal neurons. Neuroscience 1995;64:653-664

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
18. Hoffman PL. Glutamate receptors in alcohol withdrawal-induced neurotoxicity. Metab Brain Dis 1995;10:73-79

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
19. Mattson MP, Barger SW, Begley JG, Mark RJ. Calcium, free radicals, and excitotoxic neuronal death in primary cell culture. Methods Cell Biol 1995;46:187-216

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
20. Hugon J, Vallat JM, Dumas M. Role of glutamate and excitotoxicity in neurologic diseases. Rev Neurol 1996;152:239-248

    PubMed
21. Paschen W. Glutamate excitotoxicity in transient global cerebral ischemia. Acta Neurobiol Exp 1996;56:313-322

    PubMed
22. Sucher NJ, Awobuluyi M, Choi YB, Lipton SA. NMDA receptors: from genes to channels. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1996;17:348-355

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
23. Perez Velazquez JL, Frantseva MV, Carlen PL. In vitro ischemia promotes glutamate-mediated free radical generation and intracellular calcium accumulation in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. J Neurosci 1997;17:9085-9094

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
24. Shaw PJ, Ince PG. Glutamate, excitotoxicity and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol 1997;244: (Suppl 2) S3-S14
25. Brown JI, Baker AJ, Konasiewicz SJ, Moulton RJ. Clinical significance of CSF glutamate concentrations following severe traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neurotrauma 1998;15:253-263

    PubMedWeb of Science
26. ↵
    Budd SL. Mechanisms of neuronal damage in brain hypoxia/ischemia: focus on the role of mitochondrial calcium accumulation. Pharmacol Ther 1998;80:203-229

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
27. ↵
    Lipton SA, Nicotera P. Calcium, free radicals and excitotoxins in neuronal apoptosis. Cell Calcium 1998;23:165-171

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
28. Rubin LL. Neuronal cell death: an updated view. Prog Brain Res 1998;117:3-8

    PubMed
29. Lipton SA, Nakanishi N. Shakespeare in love–with NMDA receptors? Nat Med 1999;5:270-271

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
30. Nicholls DG, Budd SL, Castilho RF, Ward MW. Glutamate excitotoxicity and neuronal energy metabolism. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;893:1-12

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
31. Pitt D, Werner P, Raine CS. Glutamate excitotoxicity in a model of multiple sclerosis [see comments]. Nat Med 2000;6:67-70

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
32. ↵
    Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Molinoff PB, eds. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects. 5th ed. New York: Raven Press; 1994
33. ↵
    Aramburu J, Rao A, Klee CB. Calcineurin: from structure to function. Curr Top Cell Regul 2000;36:237-295

    PubMedWeb of Science
34. ↵
    Kader A, Frazzini VI, Solomon RA, Trifiletti RR. Nitric oxide production during focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 1993;24:1709-1716

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
35. Lipton SA, Singel DJ, Stamler JS. Nitric oxide in the central nervous system. Prog Brain Res 1994;103:359-364

    PubMedWeb of Science
36. Lipton SA, Yeh M, Dreyer EB. Update on current models of HIV-related neuronal injury: platelet-activating factor, arachidonic acid and nitric oxide. Adv Neuroimmunol 1994;4:181-188

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
37. Lipton SA, Singel DJ, Stamler JS. Neuroprotective and neurodestructive effects of nitric oxide and redox congeners. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994;738:382-387

    PubMed
38. Bukrinsky MI, Nottet HS, Schmidtmayerova H, et al. Regulation of nitric oxide synthase activity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected monocytes: implications for HIV-associated neurological disease. J Exp Med 1995;181:735-745

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
39. Bonfoco E, Leist M, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S, Lipton SA, Nicotera P. Cytoskeletal breakdown and apoptosis elicited by NO donors in cerebellar granule cells require NMDA receptor activation. J Neurochem 1996;67:2484-2493

    PubMedWeb of Science
40. Christopherson KS, Bredt DS. Nitric oxide in excitable tissues: physiological roles and disease. J Clin Invest 1997;100:2424-2429

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
41. Heales SJ, Barker JE, Stewart VC, et al. Nitric oxide, energy metabolism and neurological disease. Biochem Soc Trans 1997;25:939-943

    FREE Full Text
42. Nicotera P, Brune B, Bagetta G. Nitric oxide: inducer or suppressor of apoptosis? Trends Pharmacol Sci 1997;18:189-190

    PubMed
43. Yun H-Y, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Nitric oxide in health and disease of the nervous system. Mol Psychiatry 1997;2:300-310

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
44. Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Nitric oxide in neurodegeneration. Prog Brain Res 1998;118:215-229

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
45. Lipton SA, Choi YB, Sucher NJ, Chen HS. Neuroprotective versus neurodestructive effects of NO-related species. Biofactors 1998;8:33-40

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
46. Luth HJ, Arendt T. Nitric oxide and Alzheimer's disease. J Hirnforsch 1998;39:245-251

    PubMed
47. Bredt DS. Endogenous nitric oxide synthesis: biological functions and pathophysiology. Free Radic Res 1999;31:577-596

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
48. Callsen-Cencic P, Hoheisel U, Kaske A, Mense S, Tenschert S. The controversy about spinal neuronal nitric oxide synthase: under which conditions is it up- or downregulated? Cell Tissue Res 1999;295:183-194

    PubMed
49. Heales SJ, Bolanos JP, Stewart VC, Brookes PS, Land JM, Clark JB. Nitric oxide, mitochondria and neurological disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1999;1410:215-228

    PubMed
50. Kim WK, Choi YB, Rayudu PV, et al. Attenuation of NMDA receptor activity and neurotoxicity by nitroxyl anion, NO. Neuron 1999;24:461-469

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
51. Lipton SA. Neuronal protection and destruction by NO. Cell Death Differentiat 1999;6:943-951
52. Torreilles F, Salman-Tabcheh S, Guerin M, Torreilles J. Neurodegenerative disorders: the role of peroxynitrite. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1999;30:153-163

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
53. Meng SZ, Ohyu J, Itoh M, Takashima S. Dopamine transporter and nitric oxide synthase in hypoxic-ischemic brain. Pediatr Neurol 2000;22:115-121

    CrossRefPubMed
54. Zhang Y, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Oxidative stress and genetics in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2000;7:240-250

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
55. ↵
    Choi D. Antagonizing excitotoxicity: a therapeutic strategy for stroke? Mount Sinai J Med 1998;65:133-138

    PubMed
56. Chalmers-Redman RM, Fraser AD, Ju WY, Wadia J, Tatton NA, Tatton WG. Mechanisms of nerve cell death: apoptosis or necrosis after cerebral ischaemia. Int Rev Neurobiol 1997;40:1-25

    PubMedWeb of Science
57. Aspey BS, Alp MS, Patel Y, Harrison MJ. Effects of combined glutamate and platelet-activating factor inhibition on the outcome of focal cerebral ischaemia: an initial screening study. Metab Brain Dis 1997;12:237-249

    PubMed
58. Fujisawa H, Dawson D, Browne SE, MacKay KB, Bullock R, McCulloch J. Pharmacological modification of glutamate neurotoxicity in vivo. Brain Res 1993;629:73-78

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
59. Hirose K, Chan PH. Blockade of glutamate excitotoxicity and its clinical applications. Neurochem Res 1993;18:479-483

    CrossRefPubMed
60. Redmond JM, Gillinov AM, Blue ME, et al. The monosialoganglioside, GM1, reduces neurologic injury associated with hypothermic circulatory arrest. Surgery 1993;114:324-332332-333

    PubMedWeb of Science
61. Kader A, Frazzini VI, Baker CJ, Solomon RA, Trifiletti RR. Effect of mild hypothermia on nitric oxide synthesis during focal cerebral ischemia. Neurosurgery 1994;35:272-277

    PubMedWeb of Science
62. Wityk RJ, Stern BJ. Ischemic stroke: today and tomorrow [see comments]. Crit Care Med 1994;22:1278-1293

    PubMedWeb of Science
63. Marini AM, Spiga G, Mocchetti I. Toward the development of strategies to prevent ischemic neuronal injury: in vitro studies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997;825:209-219

    CrossRefPubMed
64. Chen HS, Wang YF, Rayudu PV, et al. Neuroprotective concentrations of the N-methyl-D-aspartate open-channel blocker memantine are effective without cytoplasmic vacuolation following post-ischemic administration and do not block maze learning or long-term potentiation. Neuroscience 1998;86:1121-1132

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
65. Qin Z. A review of therapeutic potentials in ischemic stroke. Eur Neurol 1998;39: (Suppl 1) 21-25
66. Popovic R, Liniger R, Bickler PE. Anesthetics and mild hypothermia similarly prevent hippocampal neuron death in an in vitro model of cerebral ischemia. Anesthesiology 2000;92:1343-1349

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
67. Ankarcrona M, Dypbukt JM, Bonfoco E, et al. Glutamate-induced neuronal death: a succession of necrosis or apoptosis depending on mitochondrial function. Neuron 1995;15:961-973

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
68. Budd SL, Nicholls DG. Mitochondria, calcium regulation, and acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J Neurochem 1996;67:2282-2291

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
69. Kristal BS, Dubinsky JM. Mitochondrial permeability transition in the central nervous system: induction by calcium cycling-dependent and -independent pathways. J Neurochem 1997;69:524-538

    PubMedWeb of Science
70. Budd SL, Nicholls DG. Mitochondria in the life and death of neurons. Essays Biochem 1998;33:43-52

    PubMedWeb of Science
71. Castilho RF, Hansson O, Ward MW, Budd SL, Nicholls DG. Mitochondrial control of acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J Neurosci 1998;18:10277-10286

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
72. Montal M. Mitochondria, glutamate neurotoxicity and the death cascade. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1366:113-126

    PubMed
73. Tatton WG, Chalmers-Redman RM. Mitochondria in neurodegenerative apoptosis: an opportunity for therapy? Ann Neurol 1998;44: (Suppl 1) S134-S141

    CrossRefPubMed
74. Castilho RF, Ward MW, Nicholls DG. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, and acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J Neurochem 1999;72:1394-1401

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
75. Dubinsky JM, Brustovetsky N, Pinelis V, Kristal BS, Herman C, Li X. The mitochondrial permeability transition: the brain's point of view. Biochem Soc Symp 1999;66:75-84

    PubMed
76. Greenamyre JT, MacKenzie G, Peng TI, Stephans SE. Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Soc Symp 1999;66:85-97

    PubMed
77. Grunewald T, Beal MF. Bioenergetics in Huntington's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;893:203-213

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
78. Nicholls DG, Ward MW. Mitochondrial membrane potential and neuronal glutamate excitotoxicity: mortality and millivolts. Trends Neurosci 2000;23:166-174

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
79. Nicholls DG, Budd SL. Mitochondria and neuronal survival. Physiol Rev 2000;80:315-360

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
80. Dubinsky JM. Mitochondrial permeability transition (mPT) involvement in the neuronal excitotoxic pathway. In: Mark LP, ed. 2001
81. Kristian T, Siesjo BK. Calcium in ischemic cell death. Stroke 1998;29:705-718

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
82. ↵
    Gagliardi RJ. Neuroprotection, excitotoxicity and NMDA antagonists. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2000;58:583-588

    CrossRefPubMed
83. Stieg PE, Sathi S, Warach S, Le DA, Lipton SA. Neuroprotection by the NMDA receptor-associated open-channel blocker memantine in a photothrombotic model of cerebral focal ischemia in neonatal rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1999;375:115-120

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
84. Suehiro E, Fujisawa H, Ito H, Ishikawa T, Maekawa T. Brain temperature modifies glutamate neurotoxicity in vivo. J Neurotrauma 1999;16:285-297

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
85. Tassorelli C, Joseph SA, Buzzi MG, Nappi G. The effects on the central nervous system of nitroglycerin: putative mechanisms and mediators. Prog Neurobiol 1999;57:607-624

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
86. Zaulyanov LL, Green PS, Simpkins JW. Glutamate receptor requirement for neuronal death from anoxia-reoxygenation: an in vitro model for assessment of the neuroprotective effects of estrogens. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999;19:705-718

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
87. Adam-Vizi V. Neuroprotective effect of sodium channel blockers in ischemia: the pathomechanism of early ischemic dysfunction. Orv Hetil 2000;141:1279-1286

    PubMed
88. Anttila V, Rimpilainen J, Pokela M, et al. Lamotrigine improves cerebral outcome after hypothermic circulatory arrest: a study in a chronic porcine model. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000;120:247-255

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
89. Sastry PS, Rao KS. Apoptosis and the nervous system. J Neurochem 2000;74:1-20

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
90. Honig LS, Rosenberg RN. Apoptosis and neurologic disease. Am J Med 2000;108:317-330

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
91. Banasiaka KJ, Xiab Y, Haddadbc GG. Mechanisms underlying hypoxia-induced neuronal apoptosis. Prog Neurobiol 2000;62:215-249

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
92. Budd SL, Tenneti L, Lishnak T, Lipton SA. Mitochondrial and extramitochondrial apoptotic signaling pathways in cerebrocortical neurons. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A 2000;97:6161-6166

    Abstract/FREE Full Text
93. Roy M, Sapolsky R. Neuronal apoptosis in acute necrotic insults: why is this subject such a mess? Trends Neurosci 1999;22:419-422

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
94. Snider BJ, Gottron FJ, Choi DW. Apoptosis and necrosis in cerebrovascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;893:243-253

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
95. Michel PP, Lambeng N, Ruberg M. Neuropharmacologic aspects of apoptosis: significance for neurodegenerative diseases. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999;22:137-150

    PubMedWeb of Science
96. Satoh T, Enokido Y, Kubo T, Yamada M, Hatanaka H. Oxygen toxicity induces apoptosis in neuronal cells. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1998;18:649-666

    PubMed
97. Savitz SI, Rosenbaum DM. Apoptosis in neurological disease. Neurosurgery 1998;42:555-572573-574

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
98. Leist M, Nicotera P. Apoptosis versus necrosis: the shape of neuronal cell death. Results Probl Cell Differ 1998;24:105-135

    PubMed
99. Leist M, Nicotera P. Apoptosis, excitotoxicity, and neuropathology. Exp Cell Res 1998;239:183-201

    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
100. Martin LJ, Al-Abdulla NA, Brambrink AM, Kirsch JR, Sieber FE, Portera-Cailliau C. Neurodegeneration in excitotoxicity, global cerebral ischemia, and target deprivation: a perspective on the contributions of apoptosis and necrosis. Brain Res Bull 1998;46:281-309

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
101. Friedlander RM, Yuan J. ICE, neuronal apoptosis and neurodegeneration [see comments]. Cell Death Differen 1998;5:823-831

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
102. Gorman AM, Orrenius S, Ceccatelli S. Apoptosis in neuronal cells: role of caspases. Neuroreport 1998;9:R49-R55

     PubMedWeb of Science
103. Green DR. Apoptotic pathways: the roads to ruin. Cell 1998;94:695-698

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
104. Ankarcrona M. Glutamate induced cell death: apoptosis or necrosis? Prog Brain Res 1998;116:265-272

     PubMedWeb of Science
105. Casaccia-Bonnefil P, Kong H, Chao MV. Neurotrophins: the biological paradox of survival factors eliciting apoptosis [see comments]. Cell Death Differen 1998;5:357-364

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
106. Johnson EJ, Greenlund LJ, Akins PT, Hsu CY. Neuronal apoptosis: current understanding of molecular mechanisms and potential role in ischemic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 1995;12:843-852

     PubMedWeb of Science
107. ↵
     Prost RW, Mark LP, Mewissen M, Li SJ. Detection of glutamate/glutamine resonances by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 0.5 tesla. Magn Reson Med 1997;37:615-618

     CrossRefPubMed
108. ↵
     Sutula T, Koch J, Golarai G, Watanabe Y, McNamara JO. NMDA receptor dependence of kindling and mossy fiber sprouting: evidence that the NMDA receptor regulates patterning of hippocampal circuits in the adult brain. J Neurosci 1996;16:7398-7406

     Abstract/FREE Full Text
109. Sutula T, Zhang P, Lynch M, Sayin U, Golarai G, Rod R. Synaptic and axonal remodeling of mossy fibers in the hilus and supragranular region of the dentate gyrus in kainate-treated rats. J Comp Neurol 1998;390:578-594

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
110. Sutula TP. Experimental models of temporal lobe epilepsy: new insights from the study of kindling and synaptic reorganization. Epilepsia 1990;31: (Suppl 3) S45-S54
111. Sutula TP. Reactive changes in epilepsy: cell death and axon sprouting induced by kindling. Epilepsy Res 1991;10:62-70

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
112. McNamara JO. Kindling: an animal model of complex partial epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1984;16: (Suppl) S72-S76
113. McNamara JO. Role of neurotransmitters in seizure mechanisms in the kindling model of epilepsy. Fed Proc 1984;43:2516-2520

     PubMedWeb of Science
114. McNamara JO. Kindling model of epilepsy. Adv Neurol 1986;44:303-318

     PubMed
115. McNamara JO. Development of new pharmacological agents for epilepsy: lessons from the kindling model. Epilepsia 1989;30: (Suppl 1) S13-S18S64-S68
116. McNamara JO. Excitatory amino acid receptors and epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg 1993;6:583-587

     PubMedWeb of Science
117. McNamara JO. Identification of genetic defect of an epilepsy: strategies for therapeutic advances. Epilepsia 1994;35: (Suppl 1) S51-S57
118. McNamara JO. Emerging insights into the genesis of epilepsy. Nature 1999;399: (Suppl) A15-A22

     CrossRefPubMed
119. McNamara JO, Yeh G, Bonhaus DW, Okazaki M, Nadler JV. NMDA receptor plasticity in the kindling model. Adv Exp Med 1990;268:451-459
120. Sherwin A, Robitaille Y, Quesney F, et al. Excitatory amino acids are elevated in human epileptic cerebral cortex. Neurology 1988;38:920-923

     Abstract/FREE Full Text
121. Hamberger A, Nystrom B, Larsson S, Silfvenius H, Nordborg C. Amino acids in the neuronal microenvironment of focal human epileptic lesions. Epilepsy Res 1991;9:32-43

     CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
122. ↵
     Mark LP, Prost R, Yetkin Z, Haughton VM. An MR Spectroscopic Study of Glutamate in Patients with Temporal Lobe Seizures. Presented at the 33rd annual meeting of the American Society of Neuroradiology, Chicago, 1995
123. ↵
     Reynolds NC, Prost RW, Mark LP. Evidence for Excitotoxicity: Comparisons of Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Huntington's Disease, Idiopathic Dystonia and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy. Presented at the 5th International Congress of Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders, New York, 1998
124. Reynolds NC, Prost RW, Mark LP. Monitoring Neuroprotective Treatment of Patients at Risk for Huntington's Disease Using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy at 0.5 Tesla. Presented at the 28th annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, Los Angeles, 1998
125. Reynolds NC, Prost RW, Mark LP. Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Huntington's Disease: Indicators of Early Pathophysiologic Changes. Presented at the 6th International Congress of Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders, Barcelona, 2000